Antigenic Drift In Influenza Virus Infection

The influenza virus is a single-stranded RNA virus, bound by a nucleoprotein.
This nucleoprotein determines the type of the virus whether it is virus type A, B or C.
The spherical surface of the virus is a lipid bilayer containing the viral antigens. The viral antigens are "hemagglutinin and "neuraminidase". These two antigens determine the subtype of virus that is H1N1, H3N2 etc.(H stands for Hemagglutinin and N stands for Neuraminidase).
When an individual gets an infection of Influenza virus, antibodies are formed against the neuraminidase and hemagglutinin antigens, which prevent future infections with the same subtype of influenza virus.

But recurrent infection occurs through mutations of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigens that allow the virus to escape from the host antibodies, this phenomenon is called antigenic drift.

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Cryoglobulinemia, Cryoglobulinemia Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

Cryoglobulinemia causes Hep C Myeloma, Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia, SLE, Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren’s syndrome, Symptoms, Immunoglobulins precipitate when cooled under skin, ulcers, rashes, gangrene, Raynaud’s phenomenon. Treatment. Plasma exchange, Chemotherapy, Treat the cause.

Human Parasites, Types of Parasites, and Classification

Parasite: A parasite is a living organism which gets nutrition and protection from another organism where it lives. Parasites enter into the human body through mouth, skin and genitalia. In this article, we will generally discuss the types and classification of parasites. It is important from an academic point of view. Those parasites are harmful, which derives their nutrition and other benefits from the host and host get nothing in return but suffers from some injury. Types of Parasites Ecto-parasite: An ectoparasite lives outside on the surface of the body of the host. Endo-parasite: An endo-parasite lives inside the body of the host, it lives in the blood, tissues, body cavities, digestive tract or other organs. Temporary parasite: A temporary parasite visits its host for a short period of time. Permanent parasite: Permanent parasite lives its whole life in the host. Facultative parasite: A facultative parasite can live both independently and dependently. It lives in the

How to taper off, wean off beta blocker, atenolol, Propranolol, Metoprolol

Beta blockers include, atenolol (Tenormin), propranolol (Inderal ) and metoprolol (Lopressor) and are used to treat high blood pressure, certain cardiac problems, migraine and few other conditions. People usually take atenolol, propranolol or metoprolol for many years as a treatment of high blood pressure or after having an episode of heart attack . Sometimes, it becomes necessary to withdraw these beta blockers due to their potential side effects that trouble the patients or sometimes doctor wants to change the drug and shift the patient to some other anti-hypertensive medicine. No matter whatever the cause is, whenever, a patient who has been using a beta blocker for a long period of time, and he needs to be stopped from further usage of that beta blocker, must not stop taking it. One should taper off the dose of a beta blocker. Now a question arises how to wean off or taper off a beta blocker? The method of tapering off beta blocker varies from individual to individual. Allow you

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